See this at: sacred-texts.com| Added on 05/28/08

The largest freely available archive of online books about religion, mythology, folklore and the esoteric on the Internet.

The largest freely available archive of online books about religion, mythology, folklore and the esoteric on the Internet. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 03/20/07

Thermopylae (IPA pronunciation: [θə(r)'mɒpəli]) (Ancient and Katharevousa Greek Θερμοπύλαι, Demotic Θερμοπύλες: "hot gateway") is a location in Greece where a narrow coastal passage existed in antiquity. It derives its name from several natural hot... See more

Thermopylae (IPA pronunciation: [θə(r)'mɒpəli]) (Ancient and Katharevousa Greek Θερμοπύλαι, Demotic Θερμοπύλες: "hot gateway") is a location in Greece where a narrow coastal passage existed in antiquity. It derives its name from several natural hot water springs. It is primarily known for the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC in which an overmatched Greek force temporarily held off advancing Persians under Xerxes, and the term since has been used to reference heroic resistance against a more powerful enemy[1]. See less

Highlights: Battle of Thermopylae between Sparta and Persia

See this at: ignca.nic.in| Added on 02/28/07

This book is the fruition of Step 1 of a project launched by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) whic is a premier Indian research institution dedicated to a holistic understanding world civilization and to the promotion of... See more

This book is the fruition of Step 1 of a project launched by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) whic is a premier Indian research institution dedicated to a holistic understanding world civilization and to the promotion of information and insight between different cultures of the world. "Sino-Indian Studies" is a special window of IGNCA drawing inspiration from Gurudeva Rabindranath Tagore's longing for reenacting the history of the "great pilgrimage" and path-opening" - "to maintain the [Sino-Indian] "intercourse of culture and friendship", in Tagore's own words. Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan, blazed a new trail in 1990, leading scholars of India and China to "look at each other" instead of trying to see each other's country through the Western Hemisphere. All the 40 Indian authors in this volume have contributed their mite to this endeavour--making it a book that parades the various Indian perspective on China, on her civilization, history, society and present... See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 11/13/06

The Merovingians were a dynasty of Frankish kings who ruled a frequently fluctuating area, largely corresonding to ancient Gaul, from the fifth to the eighth century. They were sometimes referred to as the "long-haired kings" (Latin reges criniti) by... See more

The Merovingians were a dynasty of Frankish kings who ruled a frequently fluctuating area, largely corresonding to ancient Gaul, from the fifth to the eighth century. They were sometimes referred to as the "long-haired kings" (Latin reges criniti) by ... See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 11/13/06

Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter", literally "Great Paper"), also called Magna Carta Libertatum ("Great Charter of Freedoms"), is an English charter originally issued in 1215.

Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter", literally "Great Paper"), also called Magna Carta Libertatum ("Great Charter of Freedoms"), is an English charter originally issued in 1215. See less

See this at: rajashivaji.com| Added on 11/13/06

The digital web-encyclopedia on the life and times of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

The digital web-encyclopedia on the life and times of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 10/30/06

King Arthur is an important figure in the mythology of Great Britain, where he appears as the ideal of kingship both in war and peace. He is the central character in the cycle of legends known as the Matter of Britain. There is disagreement about... See more

King Arthur is an important figure in the mythology of Great Britain, where he appears as the ideal of kingship both in war and peace. He is the central character in the cycle of legends known as the Matter of Britain. There is disagreement about whether Arthur, or a model for him, ever actually existed. In the earliest mentions and in Welsh texts, he is never given the title 'King'. An early text refers to him as a dux bellorum ('war leader'), and medieval Welsh texts often call him ameraudur ("emperor"; the word is borrowed from the Latin imperator, which could also mean "war leader"). See less

See this at: fordham.edu| Added on 10/24/06

* WEB Itihaas: The History of India A major site. Very well done online history, with timelines, etc. Contains data available nowhere else on the net (e.g. dates of British governors.) Takes a moderate nationalist line (e.g. takes care to point out... See more

* WEB Itihaas: The History of India A major site. Very well done online history, with timelines, etc. Contains data available nowhere else on the net (e.g. dates of British governors.) Takes a moderate nationalist line (e.g. takes care to point out Muslim destruction of Hindu sites, but does not try to cast Akbar as a villain.) * WEB Manas: India and Its Neighbors [At UCLA] The history, politics, culture, and art of India/Indian sub-continent. One of the best sites. See less

See this at: fordham.edu| Added on 10/24/06

The section of the Sourcebook is devoted to copy-permitted maps and images. These images can be used in teaching, and in web page creation. The source of images is indicated for each image. * Main Page will take you back to Sourcebook main page. *... See more

The section of the Sourcebook is devoted to copy-permitted maps and images. These images can be used in teaching, and in web page creation. The source of images is indicated for each image. * Main Page will take you back to Sourcebook main page. * Full Texts will take you to the index of full text medieval sources. * Saints' Lives will take you to the page on hagiography. * New Accessions Page will take you back to a file of Sourcebook contents organized by date of addition (so you can see what is new). * Search the Sourcebook will enable searches of the full texts of all the source texts at Fordham, at ORB, or selected ancient, late antique, and medieval text databases. See less

See this at: fordham.edu| Added on 10/24/06

Full text sources for medieval history

Full text sources for medieval history See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 10/06/06

Attila the Hun (405–453) was the final and most powerful king of the Huns. He reigned over what was then Europe's largest empire, from 434 until his death. His empire stretched from Germany and the Netherlands to the Ural river and from the Danube... See more

Attila the Hun (405–453) was the final and most powerful king of the Huns. He reigned over what was then Europe's largest empire, from 434 until his death. His empire stretched from Germany and the Netherlands to the Ural river and from the Danube River to Poland and Estonia. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 09/21/06

The Bayeux Tapestry (French: Tapisserie de Bayeux) is a 50 cm by 70 m (20 in by 230 ft) long embroidered cloth which depicts scenes commemorating the Battle of Hastings in 1066, with annotations in Latin. It is presently exhibited in a special museum... See more

The Bayeux Tapestry (French: Tapisserie de Bayeux) is a 50 cm by 70 m (20 in by 230 ft) long embroidered cloth which depicts scenes commemorating the Battle of Hastings in 1066, with annotations in Latin. It is presently exhibited in a special museum in Bayeux, Normandy, France. See less

See this at: bbc.co.uk| Added on 09/19/06

A short entry in the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' describes how in 789 three Viking ships arrived on Britain's Wessex shore. The local reeve was sent to greet them, but he was killed on the spot. Unfortunately for the British, this was a harbinger of... See more

A short entry in the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' describes how in 789 three Viking ships arrived on Britain's Wessex shore. The local reeve was sent to greet them, but he was killed on the spot. Unfortunately for the British, this was a harbinger of worse things to come. Four years later, Lindisfarne (Holy Island), a monastery on an island just off the Northumbrian coast, was sacked. The monastery was revered for its link with St Cuthbert more than a century earlier, and was one of Britain's most sacred sites. The first Viking raids were hit-and-run affairs. There was no co-ordination and no long-term plan behind them. Raids were not even a new hazard in a society well-used to warfare on every scale - from local skirmishes to great battles. The Vikings' great sin in this case, however, was to attack and pillage one of the most sacred places of the Christian world. The leaders of that world were quick to condemn them, and one of those leaders, whose words have fortunately come down to us,... See less

See this at: bbc.co.uk| Added on 09/18/06

The gene pool of the island has changed, but more slowly and far less completely than implied by the old 'invasion model', and the notion of large-scale migrations, once the key explanation for change in early Britain, has been widely discredited.... See more

The gene pool of the island has changed, but more slowly and far less completely than implied by the old 'invasion model', and the notion of large-scale migrations, once the key explanation for change in early Britain, has been widely discredited. Substantial genetic continuity of population does not preclude profound shifts in culture and identity. It is actually quite common to observe important cultural change, including adoption of wholly new identities, with little or no biological change to a population. Millions of people since Roman times have thought of themselves as 'British', for example, yet this identity was only created in 1707 with the Union of England, Wales and Scotland. Before Roman times 'Britain' was just a geographical entity, and had no political meaning, and no single cultural identity. Arguably this remained generally true until the 17th century, when James I of England sought to establish a pan-British monarchy. Throughout recorded history the island has... See less

See this at: bbc.co.uk| Added on 09/18/06

This map shows the approximate location of the major tribes who lived in Britain at the time of the Roman Conquest of Britain in the First Century AD. The sole source for the existence and location of these tribes are Roman writers who visited... See more

This map shows the approximate location of the major tribes who lived in Britain at the time of the Roman Conquest of Britain in the First Century AD. The sole source for the existence and location of these tribes are Roman writers who visited Britain. One of the best observers of the tribes of Celtic Britain was Tacitus who wrote on historical events in Britain. Another was a Roman geographer called Ptolemy who wrote a description of Britain, listing the names of the many British tribes. However, we must treat these writings with care as they are as much propaganda as impartial historical accounts. Furthermore, the Roman writers sometimes misunderstood British events or even the names of the tribes. This is especially true of their descriptions of tribes in the north where Roman knowledge was even more limited. Indeed, precise information about where these tribes lived is entirely absent from the contemporary Roman records. Key Tribal Regions * 01: Caledones (Caledonii) * 02: Taexali... See less

See this at: bbc.co.uk| Added on 09/18/06

Cnut's takeover When William, Duke of Normandy defeated Harold Godwinson on the field of Hastings, he was conquering a nation of collaborators. The story of the Norman Conquest does not start in 1066, but 50 years earlier, with another invasion and... See more

Cnut's takeover When William, Duke of Normandy defeated Harold Godwinson on the field of Hastings, he was conquering a nation of collaborators. The story of the Norman Conquest does not start in 1066, but 50 years earlier, with another invasion and another group of Norsemen. In 1016, Cnut, King of Denmark, seized the kingdom of England by exploiting the bitter rivalries between king Aethelred Unraed (without counsel), his son Edmund Ironside and his closest advisors. Cnut's takeover had not been unexpected: many English magnates had been aligning themselves for just such an eventuality - most important among them being Eadric, ealdorman of Mercia, whose treachery at the Battle of Ashingdon handed Cnut the throne. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 05/09/06

The Crusades were a series of military campaigns—usually sanctioned by the Papacy—that took place during the 11th through 13th centuries. Originally, they were Roman Catholic Holy Wars to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims, but... See more

The Crusades were a series of military campaigns—usually sanctioned by the Papacy—that took place during the 11th through 13th centuries. Originally, they were Roman Catholic Holy Wars to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims, but some were directed against other Europeans, such as the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars of southern France and the Northern Crusades. The Fourth Crusade was originally intended to reach the Holy Land, but was re-directed by the Venetians against Constantinople. Beyond the medieval military events, the word "crusade" has evolved to have multiple meanings and connotations. For additional meanings see usage of the term "crusade" below and/or the dictionary definition. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/16/06

The Khyber Pass (also called the Khaiber Pass or Khaybar Pass) (Urdu: درہ خیبر) is the most important pass connecting Pakistan with Afghanistan. Throughout history it has been an important trade route between central Asia and the Subcontinent and a... See more

The Khyber Pass (also called the Khaiber Pass or Khaybar Pass) (Urdu: درہ خیبر) is the most important pass connecting Pakistan with Afghanistan. Throughout history it has been an important trade route between central Asia and the Subcontinent and a strategic military location. The actual pass summit is 5 kilometers inside Pakistan at Landi Kotal. See less

See this at: loc.gov| Added on 04/13/06

Some scholars have argued that economics and class conflicts caused the American Revolution. However, most experts now endorse the traditional theory that the Revolution was a political conflict, caused by irreconcilable differences about how the... See more

Some scholars have argued that economics and class conflicts caused the American Revolution. However, most experts now endorse the traditional theory that the Revolution was a political conflict, caused by irreconcilable differences about how the American colonies should be governed. By 1776, the British were committed to the view that Parliament must exercise unchallenged authority in all parts of the empire, including the power to tax Americans without their consent. Americans believed that they were entitled to certain fundamental rights, the "rights of Englishmen," which put certain activities beyond the reach of any government. Inability to compromise on these ideas led in 1775 to an appeal to arms. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

The Arab-Israeli conflict is a modern phenomenon, which dates back to the end of the 19th century. The conflict became a major international issue after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1917, and in various forms it continues to this day. The... See more

The Arab-Israeli conflict is a modern phenomenon, which dates back to the end of the 19th century. The conflict became a major international issue after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1917, and in various forms it continues to this day. The Arab-Israeli conflict has resulted in at least five major wars and a number of "minor conflicts". It has also been the source of two major Palestinian intifadas (uprisings) and is cited by al-Qaeda, a largely Arab organization, as one of the reasons for its conflict with the Western world. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

The Cold War was the protracted geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle that emerged after World War II between the global superpowers of the Soviet Union and the United States, supported by their respective and emerging alliance partners.... See more

The Cold War was the protracted geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle that emerged after World War II between the global superpowers of the Soviet Union and the United States, supported by their respective and emerging alliance partners. It took place from about 1947 to about 1991. The struggle was called the Cold War because it did not involve direct armed conflict between the main contestants (by contrast, a so-called "hot" war). The Cold War was instead waged by means of diplomatic maneuvering, economic pressure, selective aid, intimidation, propaganda, assassination, low-intensity military operations and full-scale proxy wars. The Cold War period also simultaneously witnessed the largest arms race (both conventional and nuclear) in history, leading to widespread global fears of a World War III and a cataclysmic nuclear war. Both sides claimed to champion freedom and democracy and made numerous accusations against the other. The United States was accused of being the... See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/10/06

The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. During this time, republicanism replaced the absolute monarchy in France, and the French sector of the Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo radical restructuring. While... See more

The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. During this time, republicanism replaced the absolute monarchy in France, and the French sector of the Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo radical restructuring. While France would oscillate among republic, empire, and monarchy for 75 years after the First Republic fell to a coup d'état by Napoleon Bonaparte, the revolution nonetheless spelled a definitive end to the Ancien Régime. It eclipses the subsequent revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in the popular imagination. It is widely seen as a major turning point in continental European history, from the age of absolutism to that of the citizenry, and even of the masses, as the dominant political force. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

The Cuban Missile Crisis refers to the tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States regarding the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. The period of greatest danger started on October 16, 1962, when U.S. reconnaissance... See more

The Cuban Missile Crisis refers to the tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States regarding the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. The period of greatest danger started on October 16, 1962, when U.S. reconnaissance was shown to U.S. President John F. Kennedy which revealed evidence for Soviet nuclear missile installations on the island, and lasted for 13 days until October 28, 1962, when Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev announced that the installations would be dismantled. The Cuban Missile Crisis is regarded as the one moment when the Cold War came closest to escalating into a nuclear war. Russians refer to the event as the "Caribbean Crisis," while Cubans refer to it as the "October Crisis." See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

The Soviet war in Afghanistan was a nine year war between the Soviet Union and anti-Soviet forces which were fighting to depose Afghanistan's Marxist government. The Soviet Union supported the government while the insurgents found support from a... See more

The Soviet war in Afghanistan was a nine year war between the Soviet Union and anti-Soviet forces which were fighting to depose Afghanistan's Marxist government. The Soviet Union supported the government while the insurgents found support from a variety of sources including the United States,and Pakistan. The initial Soviet deployment of the 40th Army into Afghanistan took place on December 25, 1979, with the final troop withdrawal taking place between May 15, 1988 and February 2, 1989. On February 15, 1989 the Soviet Union officially announced that all of its troops had departed the country. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

The Suez Crisis, also known as the Suez War or 1956 War (commonly known in the Arab world as the Tripartite aggression; other names include the Suez-Sinai war, 1956 Arab-Israeli War, Suez Campaign, Kadesh Operation, and Operation Musketeer) was a war... See more

The Suez Crisis, also known as the Suez War or 1956 War (commonly known in the Arab world as the Tripartite aggression; other names include the Suez-Sinai war, 1956 Arab-Israeli War, Suez Campaign, Kadesh Operation, and Operation Musketeer) was a war fought on Egyptian territory in 1956. The conflict pitted Egypt against a secret alliance between France, the United Kingdom and Israel. This secret alliance against Egypt largely took place as a result of the Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser's goal of nationalizing the Suez Canal, which was an important asset to French and British economies. The alliance between the two European nations and Israel was largely one of convenience; the European nations had economic and trading interests in the Suez Canal, while Israel wanted to re-open the canal for Israeli shipping and end Egyptian-supported guerrilla incursions. When the USSR threatened to intervene on behalf of Egypt, Lester B. Pearson feared a larger war and forced the British and... See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the right to define "socialism" and "capitalism". This meant in practice that no country was allowed to leave the Warsaw Pact or to disturb that nation's... See more

Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the right to define "socialism" and "capitalism". This meant in practice that no country was allowed to leave the Warsaw Pact or to disturb that nation's communist party's monopoly on power. The doctrine was used to justify the invasions of Czechoslovakia that terminated the Prague Spring in 1968 and of the non-Warsaw Pact nation of Afghanistan in 1979. The Brezhnev Doctrine was superseded by the facetiously named Sinatra Doctrine in 1988. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of General Ydígoras Fuentes, who took power in 1958 following the murder of Colonel Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and... See more

In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of General Ydígoras Fuentes, who took power in 1958 following the murder of Colonel Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with Cuba. This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years. [edit] See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

The 1956 Hungarian Revolution, also known as the Hungarian Uprising or simply the Hungarian Revolt, was an anti-Soviet revolt in Hungary lasting from 23 October to 4 November 1956. The revolt was suppressed by Soviet troops, and to a much smaller... See more

The 1956 Hungarian Revolution, also known as the Hungarian Uprising or simply the Hungarian Revolt, was an anti-Soviet revolt in Hungary lasting from 23 October to 4 November 1956. The revolt was suppressed by Soviet troops, and to a much smaller degree the Hungarian ÁVH (Államvédelmi Hatóság, 'State Protection Authority'). Anywhere from 25,000 to 50,000 Hungarian rebels and 7,000 Soviet troops were killed, thousands more were wounded, and nearly a quarter of a million left the country as refugees. The revolution led to a significant drop in support for Marxist-Leninist ideas in Western countries. See less

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

The Korean War from June 25, 1950 to cease-fire on July 27, 1953 (the war has not ended officially), was a conflict between North Korea and South Korea. Some consider this Cold War-era conflict to have been a proxy war between the United States and... See more

The Korean War from June 25, 1950 to cease-fire on July 27, 1953 (the war has not ended officially), was a conflict between North Korea and South Korea. Some consider this Cold War-era conflict to have been a proxy war between the United States and its allies, and the Communist powers of the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. The principal combatants were North Korea, supported by People's Volunteer Army (PVA) of Communist China, and later Soviet combat advisors, aircraft pilots, and weapons; and South Korea, supported principally by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Philippines, although many other nations sent troops under the aegis of the United Nations. In South Korea, it is often called "6·25" (the date of the start of the conflict), or, more formally, Hanguk Jeonjaeng (한국전쟁). In the United States, the conflict was termed a police action, as the Korean Conflict, under the aegis of the United Nations rather than a war, largely in order to remove the... See less

Highlights: Accordingly, after the war, the American defense budget was boosted to $50 billion, the Army was doubled in size, as was the number of Air Groups, and they were deployed beyond American soil in Europe, the Middle East and elsewhere in Asia.

See this at: en.wikipedia.org| Added on 04/13/06

The Marshall Plan, known officially following its enactment as the European Recovery Program (ERP), was the primary plan of the United States for rebuilding Europe after World War II. The initiative was named for United States Secretary of State... See more

The Marshall Plan, known officially following its enactment as the European Recovery Program (ERP), was the primary plan of the United States for rebuilding Europe after World War II. The initiative was named for United States Secretary of State George Marshall and was largely the creation of State Department officials, especially William L. Clayton and George F. Kennan. The reconstruction plan was developed at a meeting of the participating European states in July 1947. The Soviet Union and the states of Eastern Europe were invited, but Joseph Stalin saw the plan as a threat and did not allow the participation of any countries under Soviet control. The plan was in operation for four fiscal years beginning in July 1947. During that period some $13 billion of economic and technical assistance — equivalent to around $130 billion in 2006, when adjusted for inflation — was given to help the recovery of the European countries which had joined in the Organization for European Economic... See less

Highlights: An estimated $9 billion was spent during the period from 1945 to 1947.